The History of Reservation in India and World

India’s system of caste-based reservations has a long and complex history stretching back over a century. As one of the world’s most extensive affirmative action programs, it has shaped Indian society and politics in profound ways. But how does India’s reservation system compare to similar policies around the world? This article traces the origins and evolution of reservations in India and examines how other countries have approached the challenge of uplifting marginalized communities.

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The Roots of Reservation in Colonial India.

The roots of India’s reservation system can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when reformers and activists began pushing for measures to address the extreme social and economic inequalities of the caste system. In 1882, education reformer Jyotirao Phule submitted a proposal to the Hunter Commission advocating for free and compulsory education for all, as well as proportionate representation in government jobs.

In the princely state of Kolhapur, Shahu Maharaj introduced reservations for non-Brahmin and backward classes in 1902. Other princely states like Mysore and Travancore soon followed with their own reservation policies. The British colonial government also began implementing limited quotas, reserving certain government posts for non-Brahmins.

The 1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms introduced the principle of communal representation, with separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs and other minority communities. In 1932, the Communal Award proposed by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald extended separate electorates to the Depressed Classes (Dalits). This was fiercely opposed by Mahatma Gandhi, leading to the Poona Pact which provided for reserved seats for Dalits within the general electorate instead.

Reservations in Independent India.

When India gained independence in 1947, the framers of the Constitution grappled with how to address centuries of caste-based discrimination and inequality. Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, they ultimately decided to include provisions for reservations in government jobs, educational institutions and elected bodies for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

Articles 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution empowered the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes. Initially, reservations were intended as a temporary measure for 10 years. However, they have been repeatedly extended and expanded over the decades.

Here is a table summarizing the key milestones in the evolution of India’s reservation system:

The Mandal Commission and OBC Reservations.

A major expansion of the reservation system came with the implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations in 1990. The commission, set up in 1979, identified Other Backward Classes (OBCs) as 52% of India’s population and recommended 27% reservation for them in government jobs and educational institutions.

The V.P. Singh government’s decision to implement these recommendations sparked widespread protests and violence across north India. Critics argued that reservations should be based on economic criteria rather than caste. However, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of OBC reservations in the landmark Indra Sawhney case of 1992, while capping total reservations at 50%.

The introduction of OBC quotas dramatically expanded the scope of reservations and reshaped Indian politics. It led to the rise of powerful OBC leaders and parties, especially in north India. At the same time, it fueled demands for reservations from other communities and intensified debates over the role of caste in modern India.

Recent Developments and Debates.

In recent years, there have been growing demands to expand reservations beyond the 50% cap set by the Supreme Court. Several states have passed laws providing quotas to various communities that exceed this limit. In 2019, the central government introduced a 10% quota for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) among upper castes through a constitutional amendment.

There are also ongoing debates about extending reservations to the private sector and excluding the “creamy layer” or affluent sections among backward classes from quota benefits. Critics argue that reservations have become a tool for vote bank politics and have failed to benefit the most marginalized. Supporters contend that caste discrimination remains pervasive and reservations are still necessary to ensure equal opportunity.

Reservation Policies Around the World.

While India’s system of caste-based reservations is unique in its scope and scale, many countries around the world have implemented various forms of affirmative action policies. Here’s how some other nations have approached this issue:

United States.

The U.S. has a long history of affirmative action policies aimed at addressing racial discrimination, particularly against African Americans. These include:

• Executive Order 10925 in 1961 mandating non-discrimination in government contracting
• Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin
• Executive Order 11246 in 1965 requiring federal contractors to take affirmative action to ensure equal opportunity

However, affirmative action in college admissions has faced legal challenges in recent years. In 2023, the Supreme Court effectively ended race-conscious admissions policies at universities.

South Africa.

Post-apartheid South Africa introduced extensive affirmative action measures through its Employment Equity Act of 1998. This requires employers to ensure equitable representation of previously disadvantaged groups (Black people, women and people with disabilities) at all levels of the workforce.

Malaysia.

Malaysia’s New Economic Policy, introduced in 1971, provided extensive preferences for the majority Bumiputera (ethnic Malay) population in education, employment and business ownership. This was aimed at reducing economic disparities between ethnic groups.

Brazil.

Brazil has implemented racial quotas in public universities since the early 2000s to increase access for Afro-Brazilians and indigenous people. In 2012, a law mandated that 50% of spots in federal universities be reserved for students from public schools, with racial quotas within this.

European Union.

The EU has directives prohibiting discrimination and allowing positive action measures to prevent or compensate for disadvantages linked to racial or ethnic origin, religion, disability, age or sexual orientation.

Comparing India’s Reservations to Global Policies.

India’s reservation system stands out in several ways when compared to affirmative action policies in other countries:

1. Scale and scope: India’s reservations cover a much larger proportion of the population and extend to political representation through reserved seats in legislatures.
2. Constitutional basis: Reservations are enshrined in the Indian Constitution, giving them a stronger legal foundation than in many other countries.
3. Caste focus: While other countries mainly target racial minorities, India’s system is based on caste identities unique to South Asian society.
4. Duration: Initially meant to be temporary, India’s reservations have been in place for over 70 years and become a permanent feature of the system.
5. Political significance: Reservations play a much more central role in electoral politics in India compared to most other countries.

Lessons and Challenges.

India’s experience with reservations offers several lessons for other countries grappling with how to address historical injustices and promote equality:

1. Long-term commitment: Overcoming deeply entrenched inequalities requires sustained effort over generations.
2. Legal framework: A strong constitutional and legal basis helps withstand challenges to affirmative action policies.
3. Periodic review: Regular assessment is needed to ensure policies remain relevant and effective.
4. Balancing competing claims: Managing demands from different groups while maintaining social cohesion is an ongoing challenge.
5. Economic factors: Addressing poverty and lack of opportunity requires going beyond quotas to focus on education, skill development and job creation.

The Road Ahead.

As India marks over 70 years of reservations, debates continue over their effectiveness and future direction. While reservations have increased representation of marginalized communities in education and government, stark inequalities persist. Critics argue for a shift towards economic criteria, while supporters say caste discrimination remains a reality requiring targeted intervention.

Going forward, policymakers will need to grapple with several key questions:

• How to balance reservations with merit and efficiency?
• Should quotas be extended to the private sector?
• How to address demands for reservations from new groups?
• What additional measures are needed to truly level the playing field?

As other countries look to India’s experience, it’s clear that there are no easy solutions. Addressing centuries of discrimination and inequality is a long-term process requiring sustained commitment, innovative approaches and difficult trade-offs. India’s reservation system, for all its flaws and controversies, remains one of the world’s most ambitious attempts to create a more equitable society.

Latest Studies on Reservation in India.

Recent research has shed new light on the impacts and challenges of India’s reservation system:

1. A 2021 study in the American Economic Review found that reservations for Scheduled Castes in state assemblies led to increased redistribution and reduced poverty among SCs.
2. Research published in The Review of Economics and Statistics in 2020 showed that college admission quotas for lower-caste groups increased their education levels without significantly displacing higher-caste students.
3. A 2022 paper in World Development examined the effects of political reservations for women in local governments, finding positive impacts on female labor force participation and girls’ education.
4. A study in the Journal of Development Economics in 2023 found that reservations in higher education improved intergenerational mobility for beneficiary groups.
5. Recent work by economists Ashwini Deshpande and Thomas Piketty has highlighted the persistence of caste gaps in income and wealth despite decades of reservations.

These studies underscore both the positive impacts of reservations in many areas as well as the continuing challenges in achieving true social and economic equality.

Frequently Asked Questions.

1. What is the current reservation percentage in India?

The current reservation quota stands at 49.5% in central government institutions, comprising 15% for Scheduled Castes, 7.5% for Scheduled Tribes, and 27% for Other Backward Classes. An additional 10% quota for Economically Weaker Sections was introduced in 2019.

2. Which countries besides India have reservation policies?

Many countries have some form of affirmative action, including the United States, South Africa, Malaysia, Brazil, and several European nations. However, the specifics vary widely.

3. Has reservation in India been successful?

The impact of reservations is debated. They have increased representation of marginalized groups in education and government, but significant disparities persist. Success has been uneven across different groups and regions.

4. What are the arguments for and against reservations?

Supporters argue reservations are necessary to address historical injustices and ensure equal opportunity. Critics contend they undermine merit, exacerbate caste divisions, and have created a “creamy layer” of beneficiaries.

5. Will reservations in India ever end?

There is no set end date for reservations. They were initially intended to be temporary but have been repeatedly extended. Any attempt to remove them would likely face strong political opposition.

In conclusion, India’s reservation system remains a topic of intense debate and scrutiny. As the country continues to evolve, so too must its approaches to addressing inequality and ensuring opportunity for all its citizens. The lessons from India’s experience offer valuable insights for nations around the world grappling with similar challenges of social justice and inclusive development.

Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only. The information provided here is based on research and publicly available sources, but may not be exhaustive or fully up-to-date. Readers are encouraged to consult official government sources and academic publications for the most current and accurate information on reservation policies in India and other countries. The views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the website or its owners. Please use this information as a starting point for further research rather than as definitive guidance.

C.K. Gupta

Hello, I am C.K. Gupta Founder of Taxgst.in, a seasoned finance professional with a Master of Commerce degree and over 20 years of experience in accounting and finance. My extensive career has been dedicated to mastering the intricacies of financial management, tax consultancy, and strategic planning. Throughout my professional journey, I have honed my skills in financial analysis, tax planning, and compliance, ensuring that all practices adhere to the latest financial regulations. My expertise also extends to auditing, where I focus on maintaining accuracy and integrity in financial reporting. I am passionate about using my knowledge to provide insightful and reliable financial advice, helping businesses optimize their financial strategies and achieve their economic goals. At Taxgst.in, I aim to share valuable insights that assist our readers in navigating the complex world of taxes and finance with ease.